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The State of India,( ) also known as the Portuguese State of India() or Portuguese India,() was a state of the Portuguese Empire founded seven years after the discovery of the sea route to the Indian subcontinent by Vasco da Gama, a of the Kingdom of Portugal. The capital of Portuguese India served as the governing centre of a string of military forts and scattered along the coasts of the .

The first viceroy Francisco de Almeida established his base of operations at in the , after the Kingdom of Cochin negotiated to become a of Portugal in 1505. With the Portuguese conquest of Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate in 1510, became the major anchorage for the Armadas arriving in India. The capital of the viceroyalty was transferred from Cochin to Goa in 1530.R.S. Whiteway, (1899) Rise of Portuguese Power in India, p.224

(1990). 9788170222590, Concept Publishing Company. .
From 1535, Mumbai (Bombay) was a of Portuguese India, known as , until it was handed over, through the of Catherine de Braganza to Charles II of England in 1661. The expression "State of India" began regularly appearing in documents in the mid-16th century.Disney, 2009, p.145

Until the 18th century, the viceroy in Goa had authority over all Portuguese possessions in and around the Indian Ocean, from to . In 1752, Mozambique got its own separate government; from 1844 on, Portuguese Goa stopped administering , and . Despite this, the viceroy at Goa only controlled limited portions of the ; some settlements remained informal private affairs, without a captain or câmara (municipal council). By the end of the 18th century, most of these unofficial colonies were abandoned by Portugal, due to heavy competition from European and Indian rivals.

(2009). 9780521409087, Cambridge University Press.

In later years, Portugal's authority was confined to holdings in the , and regions along the . At the time of the dissolution of the in 1947, Portuguese India comprised three administrative divisions, sometimes referred to collectively as Goa: (which included ), Damaon (which included the exclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli) and . The Salazar regime of Portugal lost de facto control of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954. Finally, the rest of the overseas territory was lost in December 1961 with the Indian Annexation of Goa under . Portugal only recognised Indian control after the Carnation Revolution and the fall of the Estado Novo regime, in a treaty signed on 31 December 1974.


Context

Vasco da Gama lands in India
The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498, when Vasco da Gama reached on the . Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and bought some Indian items. One Portuguese accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim. On the advice of this man, Gama sent a couple of his men to to meet with the ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure a letter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin, but the Portuguese were unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold.
(2025). 9788177481044, Calicut University Publications. .

Later Calicut officials temporarily detained Gama's Portuguese agents as security for payment. This annoyed Gama, who carried off a few natives and sixteen fishermen with him by force.The incident is mentioned by Camões in The Lusiads, where it is stated that the Zamorin "showed no signs of treachery" and that "on the other hand, Gama's conduct in carrying off the five men he had entrapped on board his ships is indefensible".

Nevertheless, Gama's expedition was successful beyond all reasonable expectations, bringing in cargo worth sixty times the cost of the expedition.


Pedro Álvares Cabral
Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India, marking the arrival of Europeans to Brazil on the way, to trade for and other spices, negotiating and establishing a factory at , where he arrived on 13 September 1500. Matters worsened when the Portuguese factory at Kozhikode was ambushed by the locals, resulting in the deaths of more than fifty Portuguese. Cabral was outraged by the attack on the factory and seized ten Arab merchant ships anchored in the harbor, killing about six hundred of their crew, confiscating their cargo and promptly burning the ships. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation for the violation of the agreement. Additionally, Cabral succeeded in making advantageous treaties with local rulers in Cochin and . Cabral started the return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived in Portugal with only 4 of the 13 ships on 23 June 1501.

In 1502, the Portuguese built a trading post in because its location at the mouth of a lagoon made it a great natural harbor.


João da Nova
The third Portuguese expedition to reach India sailed under the command of João da Nova and was composed of four ships, tasked mainly with acquiring spices and returning to Europe. While en route, the fleet discovered the islands of Ascension and Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, and despite it having been planned as a purely commercial expedition, the fleet clashed with vessels of the Zamorin of Calicut off the Malabar Coast at the First Battle of Cannanore, the first significant naval battle of Portuguese India.

The fleet may also have called at Ceylon.


Vasco da Gama
Vasco da Gama sailed to India for the second time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30 October 1502. Gama this time made a call to expel all Muslims from which was turned down. The ruler showed willingness to sign a treaty, but Gama bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels after he was informed that the Zamorin was messaging neighbouring rulers to join him in resisting the Portuguese at the same time. While in India, Gama also attacked Onor, reduced Baticala to tributary status, established a trade treaty and trading post at , and clashed with a fleet belonging to the Zamorin at the Battle of Calicut of 1503. He returned to Portugal in September 1503.


Afonso de Albuquerque
The expedition of 1503 was the first time Afonso de Albuquerque sailed to India, as its commander. Its activities were limited to erecting a fort on the territory of the allied kingdom of Cochin, signing a peace with Zamorin that would prove brief, and opening a new trading post at .


Lopo Soares de Albergaria
The sixth Portuguese expedition to India was commanded by Lopo Soares de Albergaria, who bombarded Calicut, relieved Duarte Pacheco Pereira and the Portuguese garrison at Cochin defending the territory from a large attack by the Zamorin at the Battle of Cochin, sacked , struck an allegiance with the king of Tanur which removed him from the suzerainty of the Zamorin, and finally captured a large Egyptian trade fleet at the Battle of Pandarane.


Foundation (1505–1515)

Francisco de Almeida
On 25 March 1505, Francisco de Almeida was appointed Viceroy of India, on the condition that he would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: , , and . Francisco de Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels with 1,500 men.

On 13 September, Francisco de Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he started the construction of . On 23 October, with the permission of the friendly ruler of Kōlattir, he started building Fort St Angelo of Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and two ships.

On 31 October 1505, Francisco de Almeida reached with only 8 vessels left.

(2025). 9788120604469, Asian Educational Services. .
There, he learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to send his son Lourenço de Almeida with 6 ships, who destroyed 27 vessels in the harbour of Quilon. Almeida took up residence in Cochin and strengthened .

The Zamorin prepared a fleet of 200 ships to oppose the Portuguese, but in March 1506, Lourenço de Almeida (son of Francisco) was victorious in a sea battle at the entrance to the harbour, in the Battle of Cannanore (1506), an important setback for the fleet of the Zamorin. Lourenço de Almeida explored the coastal waters southwards to , in what is now . In Cannanore, a new ruler, hostile to the Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese garrison, leading to the Siege of Cannanore.

In 1507 Almeida's mission was strengthened by the arrival of Tristão da Cunha's squadron. Afonso de Albuquerque's squadron had split from that of Cunha off East Africa and was independently conquering territories in the to the west.

In March 1508, a Portuguese squadron under the command of Lourenço de Almeida was attacked by a combined Mameluk Egyptian and Gujarat Sultanate fleet at and Dabul respectively, led by admirals and in the Battle of Chaul. Lourenço de Almeida died after a fierce fight in this battle. Mamluk-Indian resistance was decisively defeated at the Battle of Diu in 1509.


Afonso de Albuquerque
In 1509, Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed the second governor of Portuguese possessions in the East. After acquiring their first in Portuguese Cochin, a new fleet under Marshal Fernão Coutinho arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power of Zamorin of Calicut. Zamorin's palace was captured and destroyed, and the city was set on fire. Zamorin's forces rallied, killing Coutinho and wounding Albuquerque. Albuquerque withdrew with his forces, and after Zamorin was assassinated in 1513, he entered into agreement with his successor to protect Portuguese interests in Malabar, and a fort was built on Calicut.

In 1510, Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate sultan with the aid of the Hindu privateer , leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in the city of Velha Goa ( in English). Old Goa bore the seat of the viceroy, who governed all the possessions in Asia.

Albuquerque added to the State of India the cities of Malacca in 1511 and in 1515. He encouraged the settlement of his soldiers and their marriage to native women. In the mid-16th century, there were about 2000 casados ("married men") in Goa.A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 147. Goa included a large body of native non-Portuguese inhabitants for the Portuguese crown to rule. To better achieve this, Albuquerque resorted to medieval Iberian procedures: people of different religious communities were allowed to live by their laws under representatives of their respective communities.Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor p.240 Exception was made to the practice of sati, which was abolished. Certain taxes due to the Adil Shah of Bijapur were also abolished.Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor p.248 Native women were legally allowed property rights for the first time.Roger Crowley (2015): Conquerors: How Portugal Seized the Indian Ocean and Forged the First Global Empire p. 288. Faber & Faber. London. At Goa, Albuquerque instituted an orphan's fund and opened a hospital, the Hospital Real de Goa, modelled after the grand Hospital Real de Todos os Santos in Lisbon.Sanceau, 1936, p.235-236 Also at Goa were built smaller hospitals run by the city's charity, the Misericórdia, dedicated to serving the poor and the natives.

Albuquerque's policies proved immensely popular amongst his soldiers as well as the local population, especially his characteristically strict observance of justice.Sanceau, 1936, p.235 When Albuquerque died in sight of Goa in 1515, even the Hindu natives of Goa mourned his passing alongside the Portuguese.Sanceau, 1936, p.298Crowley, 2015, p.356 His tomb at the Nossa Senhora da Serra hermitage was converted to a shrine by the local Hindus, who would leave flowers there in his dedication and direct prayers to him, seeking aid in matters of justice, until his remains were returned to Portugal in 1566.

The Portuguese had also shipped Órfãs do Rei to their colonies in the , the most important of which were the eastern of Goa and the largest in Bombay-Bassein. Órfãs do Rei (literally "Orphans of the King") were orphaned Portuguese girls patronised by the King, and sent to overseas colonies to form with either Portuguese settlers or natives of high status.


16th to 17th century
In 1520, the Portuguese extended their dominion over the town of , when captured the and delivered it to the Portuguese, in exchange for a mutual against the Deccan Sultanates.

In 1526, John III of Portugal granted the city of Goa and its town hall the same legal status as , in a in which the general laws and privileges of the city, its town hall, and the local Hindu community were detailed – especially important since at the time the native laws of Goa were still not written, instead being handled by councils of elders or religious judges and passed down orally.Luís Filipe Ferreira Reis Thomaz (1994): De Ceuta a Timor p. 249

There were Portuguese settlements in and around the Coromandel region. The in the neighbourhood of Madras (Chennai) was the first church that the Portuguese built in the area in 1516; the São Tomé or shrine was rebuilt by them in 1522. They also built the first structures at the Basilica of Our Lady of the Mount, Bandra, the Our Lady of Velankanni shrine and the Cathedral of Our Lady of Miracles, which are among the important Christian pilgrimage sites of South Asia.

Several colonies were also acquired from the Sultan of Guzerat in the north : Daman was sacked in 1531 and ceded in 1539; , the seven islands of Bombay, and Bassein (Vasai) in 1534; and Diu, in 1535. These would jointly come to be known as the Northern Province of Portuguese India. It extended almost along the west coast from Daman to Chaul and in some places inland. The territory () of Portuguese Bombay had its in and around the ; subject to the viceroy in the capital () of in south Konkan country, along with other colonies in the Indian subcontinent, such as Portuguese Ceylon and Portuguese Chittagong.

The carried out the Siege of Diu in 1538, with a strong fleet under the command of the Ottoman governor of Egypt Sulaiman Pasha for four months, with the aid of a large army provided by the Sultan of Guzerat; however they were ultimately forced to retreat with considerable losses. The successful defence of Dio by captain António da Silveira against overwhelming odds was a battle of annihilation, is one of the most celebrated exploits in Portuguese history, and frequently compared to the Great Siege of Malta. On the occasion, the Portuguese captured the Tiro de Diu, a massive Guzerati bombard.

According to Portuguese records, there was a cholera epidemic in 1543, "It is said that deaths from the disposal of the disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task""A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day"

On 16 May 1546, the Jesuit missionary requested the institution of the for the "" and "" in a letter to John III of Portugal. Non-Christians were officially oppressed, even before the Inquisition was set up. Francis Xavier was instrumental in a mass conversion of 30,000 fishermen at . In this year, the Portuguese fortress of Diu was sieged a second time by a Gujarati army led by the lord of Surat .

In 1556, the printing press in Goa was the first installed in India at Saint Paul's College, Goa. Through publications made on the press, he opened a window on the knowledge and customs of Europe. The Jesuits brought this European-style, metal technology to in China in 1588 and to Japan in 1590.A. J. R. Russell-Wood, The Portuguese Empire, 1415-1808: A World on the Move, p.204.

By the start of the 17th century, the population of Goa and the surrounding areas was about 250,000.M.N. Pearson. "The New Cambridge History of India: The Portuguese in India." 1988. Pages 92–93: "In 1524 there were 450 Portuguese householders in Goa city, and in 1540 about 1,800. The former figure refers to "pure" Portuguese, while the latter includes descendants of Portuguese and local women, in other words mestiços. There were also 3,600 soldiers in the town in 1540. In the 1540s, at the time of St Francis Xavier, the city population included 10,000 Indian Christians, 3,000-4,000 Portuguese, and many non-Christians, while outside the city the rest of Ilhas contained 50,000 inhabitants, 80 percent of them Hindu. Recent estimates put the city population at 60,000 in the 1580s, and about 75,000 at 1600, the latter figure including 1,500 Portuguese and mestiços, 20,000 Hindus, and the rest local Christians, Africans, and others. In the 1630s the total population of the Old Conquests — Ilhas, and — was perhaps a little more than a quarter of a million... Casualties in the endless skirmishes with Malabarese and others were often substantial. Cholera and malaria also took their toll; one estimate claims that from 1604 to 1634, 25,000 soldiers died in the Royal Hospital in Goa." Holding this strategic land against repeated attacks by the Indian states required constant infusions of men and material. Portugal's important victories, such as the battle of Cochin in 1504, the defence of Diu in 1509, the conquest of Goa in 1510, the defences of Diu in 1538 and 1546, and the defence of Goa in 1571 were accomplished with limited . In their largest deployments, the Portuguese could field perhaps 2,000 to 3,000 European and mestiço troops supported by a similar amount of local auxiliaries, while the larger Indian states could field tens of thousands each. Portuguese superiority in military technology (especially in ships and artillery), training (especially in the skill of their gunners), and tactics, combined with the disunity of the Indian states opposing them, allowed them to keep their position and consistently win their wars.Pearson, p. 56–59.


17th to 20th century

17th century
The seven islands of Bombay were presented to the in 1661, as part of the dowry of Catherine Braganza to Charles II of England, who in turn leased the area to the English East India Company.

In 1683, the Maratha Empire invaded Portuguese settlements in the Konkan region. Following Maratha victories in the Battle of Vasai and Siege of Ponda, the Marathas would then besiege Goa. The conflict ended following the 1684 Treaty of Ponda.

Kollam () was a prominent seaport and became a Portuguese settlement in 1519. They built a cemetery at in Quilon city. After the Dutch East India Company invasion, the Dutch also buried their dead there. The pirates of Tangasseri inhabited the cemetery before Europeans arrived. Remnants of this cemetery still exist today, very close to Tangasseri Lighthouse and St Thomas Fort, which are listed among the protected monuments in the Archaeological Survey of India.


18th century
Most of the Northern Province, composed of , Bassein (Vasai) and Chaul near was lost following another Mahratta Invasion of Bassein in 1739. Goa, Daman and Diu as well as , were retained because a fleet of Portuguese Armadas arrived from , bearing a newly appointed viceroy.

In 1752, Mozambique was detached from the State of India and henceforth ruled by its own governor.

In the aftermath of the battles and the losses, the Portuguese expanded the territory of Goa between 1763 and 1788, at the expense of the Dessais of , the Sondas, and the / of , which became known as the .A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 321. By order of the Marquis de Pombal, the were expelled from Portugal's territories in 1759.A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 325. They were replaced by the Oratorians, a native religious order founded by Christian Brahmin and Christian Kshatriya converts; a college dedicated to the secular education of the native elites was opened; and the was abolished. Under the influence of Pombal, King José declared that native Christians were equal in standing with Europeans, while the Viceroy Count of Ega declared religious freedom and prohibited racial slander. For these reasons, "Pombal and his collaborators remain, to this day, much respected figures in Goa"A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, p. 326.

In 1783, following an attack on the Portuguese ship Santana, the Marathas handed over control of the territories of Dadrá and Nagar Áveli. The Portuguese then purchased Dadrá in 1785. By 1818, the Portuguese were the undisputed rulers of Nagar Áveli after the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.

The Conspiracy of the Pintos, also known as the Pinto Revolt, was a rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa in 1787. The leaders of the plot were three prominent priests from the village of in the of . They belonged to the noble Roman Catholic Brahmin Pinto clan, hence the name of the rebellion. This was the first anti-colonial revolt in India and one of the first by Catholic subjects in all European colonies.


19th century
Military intelligence about France's plan to occupy Goa caused the British Governor-general at Calcutta, the Marquis of Wellesley to send troops. Goa was briefly a British Protectorate from 1799 to 1813. The Portuguese governor Francisco António da Veiga Cabral managed to retain control of civil institutions by formally appointing the British officer in charge of the occupation, Sir William Clarke, as commander of Portuguese troops in Goa under his authority.Disney, II, 2009, p. 330.

In 1843, the capital was moved to ( Nova Goa or New Goa), when it officially became the administrative seat of the Estado, replacing the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa), although the viceroys had taken residence there already since 1 December 1759. In 1844, the Portuguese governor of India stopped administering the territories of Macão, Solór, and Timór. Only then was the territory of the State of India confined to the Indian subcontinent itself.


Second World War
Portugal was neutral during the Second World War. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities, Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by British forces. Three German merchant ships, the Ehrenfels, the Drachenfels and the Braunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port of . The Ehrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to the operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.

The was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission of Special Operations Executive backed a covert raid using members from the Calcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, the Phoebe, and sailed around India to Goa, where they sank the Ehrenfels. The British then sent an unencrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.

The raid was described in the book Boarding Party by . Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that the raiders had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978.

(1978). 9780434410262, Heinemann. .
In 1980 the story was made into the film, The Sea Wolves, starring , and .


1945 to 1961
On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans" took control of the enclave of Dadra. was seized by Azad Gomantak Dal on 2 August 1954. The International Court of Justice at The Hague delivered an verdict, regarding access to Dadra and Nagar Haveli by Portugal.

From 1954, the () against Portuguese rule, outside were violently suppressed through brute force. Many internal revolts were quelled and leaders extrajudicially murdered or jailed. As a result, India broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal, closed its consulate-general in

(1986). 9788185571003, Goa University. .
and demanded that Portugal must close its delegation in . India also imposed an economic embargo against the territories of Portuguese Goa.
(2025). 9788170998907, Mittal Publications. .
The Indian Government adopted a diplomatic "wait and watch" approach from 1955 to 1961 with numerous representations to the Portuguese Salazar dictatorship, and made attempts to highlight the issue of before the international community.

To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and from the Indian enclaves, the Salazar dictatorship established an airline, Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa,

(1990). 9788170222590, Concept Publishing Company. .
and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.

In December 1961, India invaded the remaining Portuguese possessions. Portuguese forces had been given orders to either defeat the invaders or die. The Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on 19 December 1961, thus ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.


Post-annexation

Status of the new territories
Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as a de facto independent entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the Republic of India in 1961.
(2025). 9788126906390, Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. .

Following the annexation of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu became new territories of the Indian Union. Maj Gen K P Candeth was declared as military governor of Goa, Daman and Diu. Goa's first legislative elections were held in 1963.

In 1967 a referendum was conducted after led by proposed it, where voters would decide whether to merge Goa into the Marathi-majority state of , the pro- faction eventually won after protests against the Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party, led by Dayanand Bandodkar. However full statehood was not conferred immediately, and it was only on 30 May 1987 that Goa became the 25th state of the Indian Union, with Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and were partitioned, and continue to be administered as the Daman, Diu and Silvassa territory.

(2003). 9781135356255, Routledge. .

The most drastic changes in Portuguese India after 1961 were the introduction of democratic elections, as well as the replacement of Portuguese with English as the general language of government and education.

(2025). 9781135797119, Routledge.
Following many years of Konkani language agitation, in the script finally became the official language of the union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu in 1987. The Indians allowed certain Portuguese institutions to continue unchanged. Amongst these were the land ownership system of the comunidades, where land was held by the community of was then leased out to individuals. Goans under the Indian Government left the Portuguese Civil Code of Goa and Daman unchanged, hence they remain as the only territories in India with a common civil code that does not depend on religion.


Citizenship
The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the Government of India the authority to define citizenship in the Indian Union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed the Goa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship) Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December 1961 in Goa, Daman, and Diu.


Indo-Portuguese relations
Portugal's Salazar dictatorship did not recognise India's sovereignty over the annexed territories, and established a government-in-exile for the territories, which continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly. After 1974's Carnation Revolution, the new Portuguese government recognised Indian sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu, and the two states restored diplomatic relations. Portugal automatically gives citizens of the former Portuguese-India its citizenship and opened a consulate in Goa in 1994.


Administration
From the establishment of Portuguese India in 1505 until its disestablishment in 1961, an official with the title of governor or viceroy served as its highest authority, usually for a three-year term, initially with authority over all Crown territories east of the Cape of Good Hope. The latter title was attributed as a high honour while the monarchy lasted, however their duties were the same as governors.A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, 2009, p. 159. They were the highest military commanders as well as administrators, hence their authority fell on matters pertaining to the armed forces, diplomacy, trade, finance and personnel management.Disney, II, 2009, p. 161. Before they left Portugal, they were handed a written set of orders and objectives, called regimento. The viceroys often attempted to influence the nomination of political allies to key positions. However, the final say fell on the metropolis. Many were accompanied by their personal retinues, and these often included their sons to serve in important military positions, such was the case of the captain-major of the seas of India Dom Lourenço de Almeida, son the viceroy Dom Francisco de Almeida. After Goa was conquered, governors and viceroys lived in the Palácio do Hidalcão, the native Indian palace built by the city's former sovereign, the Adil Khan.

The most important administrative structure of the State was put in place in the 16th century; it included the high court ( relação), the superintendency of finances ( vedoria da fazenda) run by a Crown appointed vedor, financial accounts office ( casa dos contos) and the military registry and supply office ( casa da matrícula).

The extremely scattered nature of Portuguese holdings however, meant that the State was highly decentralized, with great power being held by individual fortress captains, their captain-generals or town halls, far away from Goa.Disney, volume II, 2009, p. 160. Like the governors and viceroys, fortress captains served for three years, however their terms could be renovated. Sancho de Vasconcelos, captain-major of Ambon served for 19 years. In the most important captaincies, financial authority rested with the vedor (superintendent), while judicial authority was vested in an ouvidor ("ombundsman").

The Church played an important role in the State. The Pope had granted the Kings of Portugal exclusive ecclesiastical rights to religious patronage ( Padroado) in their overseas possessions. After 1513 Portuguese eastern holdings were part of the bishopric of Funchal seated in Madeira island. After 1557 Goa became the seat of an archbishop with subordinate bishops in Cochin and Malacca.Disney, II, 2009, p. 163. Further sees were later opened in Macau in 1576 and in Funai in 1588. Religious Orders of the , , and established mission headquarters in Goa, giving the Catholic Church a very visible presence and influence in the capital of the State of India, for which it earned the nickname of "Rome of the East", a fact commented by many foreign travellers.

In the most important settlements featured a câmara ("town hall"), with charters similar to equivalent cities in Portugal, and they played an important role in administration, as they were the only institution through which settlers could voice their opinions and make themselves heard.Disney, II, 2009, p. 164. They were responsible for local governance, could collect some municipal taxes and acted as a court of first instance. They sometimes provided loans to Viceroys, though cooperation was often difficult. Portuguese merchants often established by their own initiative a câmara in their non-Crown settlements, the most important case of which was the in Macau.

Aside from the Portuguese themselves, the State often also ruled over non-Portuguese, non-Christian peoples, and in these cases often the traditional native structures were left in place. When Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, the Hindu inhabitants were left in possession of their lands; the pre-Portuguese system of land-ownership and administration of village communes codified and the rights of Brahmin or Khsatria ganvkars (shareholders) recognized, and tax collection was left to the Hindu and after him the long-standing Krishna Rao. In Hormuz, Albuquerque left its native Muslim king as chief administrator under a protectorate. As the Counter-Reformation gained momentum in Europe, Brahmins were excluded from the Portuguese administration during the tenure of Dom Constantino de Bragança, which resulted in a wave of conversions.Disney, II, 2009, p. 165.


Trade and economy
Trade had been one of the primary motivations behind the Portuguese expansion overseas, and one of the main objectives behind the foundation of the State of India was to take over the Europe-Asia trade, up to that point conducted mainly through the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, redirecting it around Africa via the Cape Route. Trade was processed either by the Crown through royal agents ( feitores) working from royal trade posts ( feitorias) and maintained by the royal finances, or by independent merchants, either Portuguese or otherwise.

One of the main tasks of royal factors was to acquire spices to be shipped back to Europe. In 1503, the Portuguese unloaded at Lisbon 30,000 quintals of spices, more than what the Venetians introduced in the European market through Alexandria in Egypt.A. R. Disney: A History of Portugal and the Portuguese Empire, volume II, 2009, p. 150. The overwhelming bulk of commodities imported to Europe by the Portuguese consisted of , which after 1520 was declared an official Crown monopoly.Disney, 2009, p.150 The Portuguese acquired most of their pepper in Kerala or Kanara in India. For most of the century, the Portuguese secured an overwhelming share of the pepper imports into Europe, supplying 75 per cent or more of Europes pepper.Disney, 2009, p.152 The Crown declared a monopoly on their commodities, such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, silk, pearls and the export of gold and silver bullion from Portugal to Asia.

The Portuguese Crown instituted a number of official carreiras, literally meaning "runs", connecting Goa to major Portuguese and non-Portuguese harbours around the Indian and Pacific oceans once a year. Initially conducted through Crown vessels, after 1560, the Crown began leasing them to private contractors, and by the late 16th century they were the norm.Disney, 2009, p.155 By 1580, the value of inter-Asian trade rights leases reached as high as two million cruzados - twice the value the Portuguese Crown earned from the Goa-Lisbon trade. Portugal regulated and rerouted the Indian Ocean trade by imposing a system of safe-passes called .Disney, 2009, p.156 It was imposed most effectively on the west coast of India. The Portuguese Crown also collected high customs dues, most importantly at Goa, Hormuz, Malacca, Bassein and Diu, and in the 1580s it accounted for over 85% of the viceroys revenue.

Independent Portuguese merchants got involved in the inter-Asian trade, and the backbone of informal Portuguese presence and trade in Asia was formed of merchants, descending from Portuguese soldiers or merchants married to local wives.Disney, 2009, p.173 Their main hub of activities was the capital of Goa, where the largest community of casados ("married men") was located at, about 2,000 families.Disney, 2009, p.175 The core element of their trade was Gujarati cotton textiles, but they also dealt in Kerala pepper, cinnamon from Sri Lanka, Kanara rice, diamonds from southern India and larins from Persia. By 1520 they had penetrated almost every commercially relevant region in Asia aside from Japan (which was reached in the 1540s). Macau was founded by independent Portuguese traders. The Crown regulated their trade into a number of convoys for safety against pirates, the most important of which were those which transported textiles from Gujarat to Goa and rice from Kanara to Goa. The second most important settlement of Portuguese merchants in India was Cochin, where 500 casados with their families resided.Disney, 2009, p.176 Diu had a casado population of about 200.Disney, 2009, p.177

Portuguese India Company was established in 1628, however with the Crown being its only major shareholder, it was liquidated five years later.Disney, 2009, p.153 By that point, Portugal's share of pepper trade had fallen behind those of the Dutch VOC and the English EIC.

Portuguese trade was greatly reduced by the war with the Dutch VOC, with whom a peace treaty was signed in 1663. Inter-Indian Portuguese convoys continued, mainly with Gujarat, and .Disney, 2009, p.310 Indian cottons became the bedrock of exports from Portuguese India, while tobacco grown in Portuguese Brazil became the most important commodity exported across Asia via Portuguese India till the 19th century.Disney, 2009, p.306 New Portuguese East India Companies established in 1669 and 1685 failed, largely due to disagreements between the Crown and the merchants over the nature of the enterprise and lack of confidence from investors. By the 18th century, tobacco, bullion, firearms, consumer goods such as Madeira wine and books represented the most important items traded in Portuguese India, while exports back to Europe included silks, spices, porcelain, precious stones, Indian cottons and high quality lacquered furniture, a good proportion being unloaded at Bahia in Brazil. Indian cottons were especially valuable in Mozambique, where an important community of Indians from Diu or Daman came to reside. Nevertheless, Goa effectively became a commercial satellite of . Many Indo-Portuguese merchants became deeply involved and prominent in , and especially British Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, Portuguese Jews being linked to the diamond trade in Madras.Disney, 2009, p.312


Society and culture
The State was largely urban, since its reason of being was to provide well-protected havens from which trade and communication could be conducted, controlled and dominated, hence only Goa, Daman, Bassein, Chaul and Colombo had any meaningful hinterland and rural populations. After the massacre of the Portuguese in their feitoria in Calicut in 1500, practically every possession of the State was fortified, sometimes massively, and for this reason it resembled as much a network of maritime communications as an enormous perimeter of fortresses.Disney, 2009, p.147

Portuguese India harboured a society that was officially Christian and European but influenced by the non-European setting into which it was inserted. At the top of the social pyramid were the European-born viceroys, officers, and clergymen, followed by the Portuguese casados and their Eurasian descendants, who could be wealthy merchants or hold important positions in the local câmara, and finally the native society. At their peak in 1600, the total number of Portuguese casados across the State probably numbered about 5,500.Disney, 2009, p.148 Many casados followed a lifestyle that seemed to foreign visitors as remarkably relaxed and luxurious by European standards, some living in fine houses furnished in the Indian fashion with many servants, abundant and varied food that included a wide variety of fruits and poultry, consumed off . Goan casados often dressed in shirts and white trousers while their wives usually wore saris.

Alongside fortresses, ecclesiastical buildings dominated the skyline of most Portuguese settlements, particularly in Goa, giving the city a distinctly European and Catholic flavour and a high profile to the Church. About 600 clergymen were concentrated in Goa out of perhaps 1800 east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1630. Nevertheless, the European and Christian Eurasian community in any Portuguese settlement of the State always constituted a minority, perhaps no more than 7% in the case of Goa, the rest being Hindus, Indian Christians, other Asians and Africans, free or slaves.

For these reasons, the State was culturally hybrid, distant as it was from Europe, with the façades and interiors of churches blending Portuguese and Asian iconographic traditions, while the domestic culture was likewise a compromise between East and West, with furniture, dress and food often more Asian than Portuguese.Disney, 2009, p.149


Postal history
Early of the colony is obscure, but regular mail is known to have been exchanged with from 1825 onwards. Portugal had a postal convention with Great Britain, so much mail was probably routed through and carried on British packets. Portuguese are known from 1854 when a post office was opened in Goa.

The last regular issue for Portuguese India was on 25 June 1960, for the 500th anniversary of the death of Prince Henry the Navigator. Stamps of India were first used on 29 December 1961, although the old stamps were accepted until 5 January 1962. Portugal continued to issue stamps for the lost colony but none were offered for sale in the colony's post offices, so they are not considered valid stamps.

was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese) postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.


Gallery
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Currency

===Architecture===


See also
  • Battle of Jambi
  • Portuguese Empire
  • Códice Casanatense
  • Estado Novo (Portugal)
  • Indo-Portuguese creoles
  • List of governors of Portuguese India
  • Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino (archives in Lisbon documenting Portuguese Empire, including India)
  • Portuguese Indian rupia
  • Portuguese Indian escudo
  • Goa liberation movement
  • Goa Civil Code
  • Cuncolim Massacre
  • History of Bombay under Portuguese rule (1534–1661)
  • Portuguese Ceylon
  • Mughal–Portuguese conflicts
  • Portuguese Negapatam


Further reading
  • Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimile edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. .
  • Panikkar, K. M. (1953). Asia and Western dominance, 1498–1945, by K.M. Panikkar. London: G. Allen and Unwin.
  • Panikkar, K. M. 1929: Malabar and the Portuguese: being a history of the relations of the Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663
  • Priolkar, A. K. The Goa Inquisition (Bombay, 1961).
  • (2025). 9789083176901, Nico F. Declercq. .


External links

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